Factors contributing to the occurrence of emerging infectious diseases including COVID-19
Keywords:
emerging infectious diseases, COVID-19, contributing factors, SARS-CoV-2Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are problems that directly affect not only people’s health but also the public health system, the economy, and even national security. The newly emerging Coronavirus Disease 2019 or COVID-19, which has infected millions of people worldwide, causing hundreds of thousands of deaths, has created a global panic about the epidemic situation. It is thus important to understand the factors contributing to the occurrence of these EIDs as they are the basis for creating and implementing measures to control the diseases as well as for preventing the occurrence of other EIDs in the future. This review article
presents information about EIDs by focusing on the factors that promote the occurrence of these diseases and incorporating relevant examples of EIDs that have emerged within the 21st century. The factors were categorized into 4 groups namely 1) factors relating to pathogens; 2) population, demographic, and social factors; 3) environmental factors; and 4) factors relating to public health systems. Analyses of factors related to the occurrence of COVID-19 were also included.
References
1. World Health Organization. A brief guide
to emerging infectious diseases and
zoonoses [Internet] 2014 [cited 2020 May
10]. Available from: https://apps.who.int/
iris/handle/10665/204722.
2. Lenz K, Hybel N. The Black Death. Scand
J Hist 2016;41(1):54-70.
3. World Health Organization. Summary
of probable SARS cases with onset of
illness from 1 November 2002 to 31 July
2003 [Internet] 2003 [cited 2020 April 1].
Available from: https://www.who.int/csr/
sars/country/table2004_04_21/en/.
4. World Health Organization. Cumulative
number of confirmed human cases
for avian influenza A(H5N1) reported
to WHO, 2003-2020 [Internet] 2020
[cited 2020 April 1]. Available from:
https://www.who.int/influenza/human_
animal_interface/2020_01_20_tableH5N1.
pdf?ua=1.
5. World Health Organization. Chikungunya
[Internet] 2017 [cited 2020 April 14].
Available from: https://www.who.int/
en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/
chikungunya.
6. Kelly H, Peck HA, Laurie KL, et al. The agespecific cumulative incidence of infection
with pandemic influenza H1N1 2009
was similar in various countries prior to
vaccination. PLoS One 2011;6(8):e21828.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021828.
7. World Health Organization. MERS situation
update, January 2020 [Internet] 2020
[cited 2020 April 14]. Available from:
http://www.emro.who.int/pandemicepidemic-diseases/mers-cov/merssituation-update-january-2020.html.
8. World Health Organization. Ebola virus
disease [Internet] 2020 [cited 2020 April
10]. Available from: https://www.who.int/
en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebolavirus-disease.
9. World Health Organization. Zika situation
report [Internet] 2017 [cited 2020 April
14]. Available from: https://www.who.
int/emergencies/zika-virus/situationreport/10-march-2017/en/.
10. Wo r l d o m e t e r s . i n f o . C O V I D - 1 9
Coronavirus pandemic 2020 [Internet]
2020 [cited 2020 June 1]. Available
from: https://www.worldometers.info/
coronavirus/#countries.
11. Morse SS. Factors in the emergence
of infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis
1995;1(1):7-15.
12. Woolhouse ME, Gowtage-Sequeria
S. Host range and emerging and
reemerging pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis
2005;11(12):1842-7.
13. Mukherjee S. Emerging infectious diseases:
epidemiological perspective. Indian J
Dermatol 2017;62(5):459-67.
14. Woolhouse M, Scott F, Hudson Z, et al.
Human viruses: discovery and emergence.
Philos Trans R Soc B 2012;367(1604):
2864-71.
15. Colson P, Richet H, Desnues C, et al. Pepper
mild mottle virus, a plant virus associated
with specific immune responses, fever,
abdominal pains, and pruritus in humans.
PLoS One 2010;5(4):e10041. doi: 10.1371/
journal.pone.0010041.
16. Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, et al. Genomic
characterization and epidemiology of
2019 novel coronavirus: implications for
virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet
2020;395(10224):565-74.
17. Enright MC, Robinson DA, Randle G, et al.
The evolutionary history of methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99(11):
7687-92.
18. Chang S, Sievert DM, Hageman JC, et
al. Infection with vancomycin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus containing the
vanA resistance gene. N Engl J Med
2003;348(14):1342-7.
19. Peacock SJ, Paterson GK. Mechanisms of
methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus
aureus. Annu Rev Biochem 2015;84:577-601.
20. Gardete S, Tomasz A. Mechanisms of
vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus
aureus. J Clin Invest 2014;124(7):2836-40.
21. Peck KM, Lauring AS. Complexities of viral
mutation rates. J Virol 2018;92(14):e01031-
17 doi: 10.1128/JVI.01031-17.
22. Garten RJ, Davis CT, Russell CA, et al.
Antigenic and genetic characteristics
of swine-origin 2009 A(H1N1) influenza
viruses circulating in humans. Science
2009;325(5937):197-201.
23. de Silva UC, Tanaka H, Nakamura S,
et al. A comprehensive analysis of
reassortment in influenza A virus. Biol
Open 2012;1(4):385-90.
24. Jean-Baptiste A, Michael EH. Virulence
evolution in emerging infectious diseases.
Evolution 2005;59(7):1406-12.
25. Schuffenecker I, Iteman I, Michault A, et al.
Genome microevolution of chikungunya
viruses causing the Indian Ocean outbreak.
PLoS Med 2006;3(7):e263. doi: 10.1371/
journal.pmed.0030263.
26. Tsetsarkin KA, Vanlandingham DL, McGee
CE, et al. A single mutation in chikungunya
virus affects vector specificity and epidemic
potential. PLoS Pathog 2007;3(12):e201.
doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030201.
27. Hapuarachchi HC, Bandara KB, Sumanadasa
SD, et al. Re-emergence of chikungunya
virus in South-East Asia: virological
evidence from Sri Lanka and Singapore.
J Gen Virol 2010;91(Pt 4):1067-76.
28. Rianthavorn P, Prianantathavorn K,
Wuttirattanakowit N, et al. An outbreak
of chikungunya in southern Thailand
from 2008 to 2009 caused by African
strains with A226V mutation. Int J Infect
Dis 2010;14 Sppl 3:e161-5. doi: 10.1016/j.
ijid.2010.01.001.
29. Park YK, Park Y-S, Na KI, et al. Increased
tuberculosis burden due to demographic
transition in Korea from 2001 to 2010.
Tuberc Respir Dis 2013;74(3):104-10.
30. Davies PDO. Tuberculosis in the elderly.
Drugs Aging 1996;8(6):436-44.
31. Thomas TY, Rajagopalan S. Tuberculosis
and aging: a global health problem. Clin
Infect Dis 2001;33(7):1034-9.
32. Zuber PL, McKenna MT, Binkin NJ, et al.
Long-term risk of tuberculosis among
foreign-born persons in the United States.
JAMA 1997;278(4):304-7.
33. Jones KE, Patel NG, Levy MA, et al. Global
trends in emerging infectious diseases.
Nature 2008;451(7181):990-3.
34. Hui DS. Super-spreading events of
MERS-CoV infection. Lancet 2016;388
(10048):942-3.
35. Shen Z, Ning F, Zhou W, et al.
Superspreading SARS events, Beijing,
2003. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10(2):256-60.
36. Michienzi SM, Burgos RM, Novak RM.
Mycobacterium conceptionense
pneumonitis in patient with HIV/AIDS.
Emerg Infect Dis 2019;25(10):1986-8.
37. Tobin-D’Angelo M, Oosmanally N,
Wilson SN, et al. Shigella bacteremia,
Georgia, USA, 2002-2012. Emerg Infect Dis
2020;26(1):122-4.
38. Wilson ME. Travel and the emergence
of infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis
1995;1(2):39-46.
39. Cherry JD. The chronology of the 2002-
2003 SARS mini pandemic. Paediatr Respir
Rev 2004;5(4):262-9.
40. Tatem AJ, Rogers DJ, Hay SI. Global
transport networks and infectious disease
spread. Adv Parasitol 2006;62:293-343.
41. Wilcox B, Ellis B. Forests and emerging
infectious diseases of humans. Unasylva
2006;57:11-8.
42. Bloomfield LSP, McIntosh TL, Lambin
EF. Habitat fragmentation, livelihood
behaviors, and contact between people
and nonhuman primates in Africa. Landsc
Ecol 2020;35(4):985-1000.
43. Olivero J, Fa JE, Real R, et al. Recent
loss of closed forests is associated with
Ebola virus disease outbreaks. Sci Rep
2017;7(1):14291.
44. Southgate VR. Schistosomiasis in the
Senegal River Basin: before and after
the construction of the dams at Diama,
Senegal and Manantali, Mali and future
prospects. J Helminthol 1997;71(2):
125-32.
45. Steinmann P, Keiser J, Bos R, et al.
Schistosomiasis and water resources
development: systematic review, metaanalysis, and estimates of people at risk.
Lancet Infect Dis 2006;6(7):411-25.
46. Sokolow SH, Jones IJ, Jocque M, et al.
Nearly 400 million people are at higher
risk of schistosomiasis because dams
block the migration of snail-eating river
prawns. Philos T R Soc B 2017;372(1722).
47. Caminade C, Kovats S, Rocklov J, et al.
Impact of climate change on global
malaria distribution. Proc Natl Acad Sci
USA 2014;111(9):3286-91.
48. Chretien JP, Anyamba A, Small J, et al.
Global climate anomalies and potential
infectious disease risks: 2014-2015.
PLoS Curr 2015;7. doi: 10.1371/currents.
outbreaks.95fbc4a8fb4695e049baabfc
2fc8289f.
49. Kovats RS, Bouma MJ, Hajat S, et al. El
Nino and health. Lancet 2003;362(9394):
1481-9.
50. Flahault A, de Castaneda RR, Bolon I.
Climate change and infectious diseases.
Public Health Rev 2016;37:21.
51. Phupat P, Sittisak S, Pimrat K, et al.
Epidemiological and serological study of
re-emerging diphtheria in Dansai District,
Loei Province, Thailand, June to October
2012. OSIR 2015;8(1):13-21.
52. Phadke VK, Bednarczyk RA, Salmon DA,
et al. Association between vaccine refusal
and vaccine-preventable diseases in the
United States: a review of measles and
pertussis. JAMA 2016;315(11):1149-58.
53. Wallin T, Holzschuh E, Kintner C. Notes
from the field: rubella infection in an
unvaccinated pregnant woman - Johnson
County, Kansas, December 2017. MMWR
2018;67(40):1132-3.
54. Akil L, Ahmad HA. The recent outbreaks
and reemergence of poliovirus in war and
conflict-affected areas. Int J Infect Dis
2016;49:40-6.
55. Mac Kenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, et
al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of
cryptosporidium infection transmitted
through the public water supply. N Engl
J Med 1994;331(3):161-7.
56. Frank C, Werber D, Cramer JP, et al.
Epidemic profile of Shiga-toxin-producing
Escherichia coli O104:H4 outbreak in
Germany. N Engl J Med 2011;365(19):
1771-80.
57. Gelting R, Bliss K, Patrick M, et al. Water,
sanitation and hygiene in Haiti: past,
present, and future. Am J Trop Med Hyg
2013;89(4):665-70.
58. Chin CS, Sorenson J, Harris JB, et al. The
origin of the Haitian cholera outbreak
strain. N Engl J Med 2011;364(1):33-42.
59. Relman DA, Loutit JS, Schmidt TM, et al.
The agent of bacillary angiomatosis. An
approach to the identification of
uncultured pathogens. N Engl J Med
1990;323(23):1573-80.
60. Ablashi DV, Eastman HB, Owen CB, et al.
Frequent HHV-6 reactivation in multiple
sclerosis (MS) and chronic fatigue
syndrome (CFS) patients. J Clin Virol
2000;16(3):179-91.
61. Alvarez-Lafuente R, Garcia-Montojo M, De
las Heras V, et al. Clinical parameters and
HHV-6 active replication in relapsingremitting multiple sclerosis patients. J Clin
Virol 2006;37 (Sppl) 1:S24-6.
62. Pierce ES. Could Mycobacterium avium
subspecies paratuberculosis cause
Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis and
colorectal cancer? Infect Agents Cancer
2018;13:1.
63. Fashner J, Gitu AC. Diagnosis and treatment
of peptic ulcer disease and Helicobacter
pylori Infection. Am Fam Physician
2015;91(4):236-42.
64. Aslam B, Wang W, Arshad MI, et al.
Antibiotic resistance: a rundown of a
global crisis. Infect Drug Resist
2018;11:1645-58.
65. Manyi-Loh C, Mamphweli S, Meyer E, et
al. Antibiotic use in agriculture and its
consequential resistance in environmental
sources: potential public health
implications. Molecules 2018;23(4):795.
66. Marshall BM, Levy SB. Food animals and
antimicrobials: impacts on human health.
Clin Microbiol Rev 2011;24(4):718-33.
67. Engering A, Hogerwerf L, Slingenbergh J.
Pathogen-host-environment interplay and
disease emergence. Emerg Microbes Infect
2013;2(2):e5. doi: 10.1038/emi.2013.5.
68. Rezza G. Chikungunya is back in Italy:
2007–2017. J Travel Med 2018;25(1). doi:
10.1093/jtm/tay004.
69. Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, et al. A novel
coronavirus from patients with pneumonia
in China, 2019. N Engl J Med 2020;382(8):
727-33.
70. Li X, Giorgi EE, Marichannegowda MH, et
al. Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 through
recombination and strong purifying
selection. Sci Adv 2020:e9153. doi:
10.1101/2020.03.20.000885.
71. Zhou H, Chen X, Hu T, et al. A novel bat
coronavirus closely related to SARS-CoV-2
contains natural insertions at the S1/S2
cleavage site of the spike protein. Curr
Biol 2020;30(11):2196-203.
72. Allen T, Murray KA, Zambrana-Torrelio C,
et al. Global hotspots and correlates of
emerging zoonotic diseases. Nat Commun
2017;8(1):1124.
73. Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, et al. Early transmission
dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel
coronavirus–infected pneumonia. N Engl
J Med 2020;382(13):1199-207.
74. World Health Organization. Modes of
transmission of virus causing COVID-19:
implications of IPC precaution
recommendations [Internet] 2020 [cited
2020 June 2]. Available from: https://
www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/
detail/modes-of-transmission-of-viruscausing-covid-19-implications-for-ipcprecaution-recommendations.
75. Al-Tawfiq JA, Rodriguez-Morales AJ. Superspreading events and contribution to
transmission of MERS, SARS, and COVID-19.
J Hosp Infect 2020;105:111-2.
76. Arons MM, Hatfield KM, Reddy SC, et al.
Presymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infections
and transmission in a skilled nursing
facility. N Engl J Med 2020;382(22):
2081-90.
77. Tian S, Hu N, Lou J, et al. Characteristics
of COVID-19 infection in Beijing. J Infect
2020;80(4):401-6.
78. World Health Organization. WHO directorgeneral’s opening remarks at the media
briefing on COVID-19 [Internet] 2020 [cited
2020 June 2]. Available from: https://
www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/whodirector-general-s-opening-remarks-atthe-media-briefing-on-covid-19-11-
march-2020.
79. World Health Organization. Strengthening
the health system response to COVID-19:
recommendations for the WHO European
Region [Internet] 2020 [cited 2020 June
2]. Available from: http://www.euro.who.
int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/436350/
strengthening-health-system-responseCOVID-19.pdf?ua=1.
to emerging infectious diseases and
zoonoses [Internet] 2014 [cited 2020 May
10]. Available from: https://apps.who.int/
iris/handle/10665/204722.
2. Lenz K, Hybel N. The Black Death. Scand
J Hist 2016;41(1):54-70.
3. World Health Organization. Summary
of probable SARS cases with onset of
illness from 1 November 2002 to 31 July
2003 [Internet] 2003 [cited 2020 April 1].
Available from: https://www.who.int/csr/
sars/country/table2004_04_21/en/.
4. World Health Organization. Cumulative
number of confirmed human cases
for avian influenza A(H5N1) reported
to WHO, 2003-2020 [Internet] 2020
[cited 2020 April 1]. Available from:
https://www.who.int/influenza/human_
animal_interface/2020_01_20_tableH5N1.
pdf?ua=1.
5. World Health Organization. Chikungunya
[Internet] 2017 [cited 2020 April 14].
Available from: https://www.who.int/
en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/
chikungunya.
6. Kelly H, Peck HA, Laurie KL, et al. The agespecific cumulative incidence of infection
with pandemic influenza H1N1 2009
was similar in various countries prior to
vaccination. PLoS One 2011;6(8):e21828.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021828.
7. World Health Organization. MERS situation
update, January 2020 [Internet] 2020
[cited 2020 April 14]. Available from:
http://www.emro.who.int/pandemicepidemic-diseases/mers-cov/merssituation-update-january-2020.html.
8. World Health Organization. Ebola virus
disease [Internet] 2020 [cited 2020 April
10]. Available from: https://www.who.int/
en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ebolavirus-disease.
9. World Health Organization. Zika situation
report [Internet] 2017 [cited 2020 April
14]. Available from: https://www.who.
int/emergencies/zika-virus/situationreport/10-march-2017/en/.
10. Wo r l d o m e t e r s . i n f o . C O V I D - 1 9
Coronavirus pandemic 2020 [Internet]
2020 [cited 2020 June 1]. Available
from: https://www.worldometers.info/
coronavirus/#countries.
11. Morse SS. Factors in the emergence
of infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis
1995;1(1):7-15.
12. Woolhouse ME, Gowtage-Sequeria
S. Host range and emerging and
reemerging pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis
2005;11(12):1842-7.
13. Mukherjee S. Emerging infectious diseases:
epidemiological perspective. Indian J
Dermatol 2017;62(5):459-67.
14. Woolhouse M, Scott F, Hudson Z, et al.
Human viruses: discovery and emergence.
Philos Trans R Soc B 2012;367(1604):
2864-71.
15. Colson P, Richet H, Desnues C, et al. Pepper
mild mottle virus, a plant virus associated
with specific immune responses, fever,
abdominal pains, and pruritus in humans.
PLoS One 2010;5(4):e10041. doi: 10.1371/
journal.pone.0010041.
16. Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, et al. Genomic
characterization and epidemiology of
2019 novel coronavirus: implications for
virus origins and receptor binding. Lancet
2020;395(10224):565-74.
17. Enright MC, Robinson DA, Randle G, et al.
The evolutionary history of methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99(11):
7687-92.
18. Chang S, Sievert DM, Hageman JC, et
al. Infection with vancomycin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus containing the
vanA resistance gene. N Engl J Med
2003;348(14):1342-7.
19. Peacock SJ, Paterson GK. Mechanisms of
methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus
aureus. Annu Rev Biochem 2015;84:577-601.
20. Gardete S, Tomasz A. Mechanisms of
vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus
aureus. J Clin Invest 2014;124(7):2836-40.
21. Peck KM, Lauring AS. Complexities of viral
mutation rates. J Virol 2018;92(14):e01031-
17 doi: 10.1128/JVI.01031-17.
22. Garten RJ, Davis CT, Russell CA, et al.
Antigenic and genetic characteristics
of swine-origin 2009 A(H1N1) influenza
viruses circulating in humans. Science
2009;325(5937):197-201.
23. de Silva UC, Tanaka H, Nakamura S,
et al. A comprehensive analysis of
reassortment in influenza A virus. Biol
Open 2012;1(4):385-90.
24. Jean-Baptiste A, Michael EH. Virulence
evolution in emerging infectious diseases.
Evolution 2005;59(7):1406-12.
25. Schuffenecker I, Iteman I, Michault A, et al.
Genome microevolution of chikungunya
viruses causing the Indian Ocean outbreak.
PLoS Med 2006;3(7):e263. doi: 10.1371/
journal.pmed.0030263.
26. Tsetsarkin KA, Vanlandingham DL, McGee
CE, et al. A single mutation in chikungunya
virus affects vector specificity and epidemic
potential. PLoS Pathog 2007;3(12):e201.
doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0030201.
27. Hapuarachchi HC, Bandara KB, Sumanadasa
SD, et al. Re-emergence of chikungunya
virus in South-East Asia: virological
evidence from Sri Lanka and Singapore.
J Gen Virol 2010;91(Pt 4):1067-76.
28. Rianthavorn P, Prianantathavorn K,
Wuttirattanakowit N, et al. An outbreak
of chikungunya in southern Thailand
from 2008 to 2009 caused by African
strains with A226V mutation. Int J Infect
Dis 2010;14 Sppl 3:e161-5. doi: 10.1016/j.
ijid.2010.01.001.
29. Park YK, Park Y-S, Na KI, et al. Increased
tuberculosis burden due to demographic
transition in Korea from 2001 to 2010.
Tuberc Respir Dis 2013;74(3):104-10.
30. Davies PDO. Tuberculosis in the elderly.
Drugs Aging 1996;8(6):436-44.
31. Thomas TY, Rajagopalan S. Tuberculosis
and aging: a global health problem. Clin
Infect Dis 2001;33(7):1034-9.
32. Zuber PL, McKenna MT, Binkin NJ, et al.
Long-term risk of tuberculosis among
foreign-born persons in the United States.
JAMA 1997;278(4):304-7.
33. Jones KE, Patel NG, Levy MA, et al. Global
trends in emerging infectious diseases.
Nature 2008;451(7181):990-3.
34. Hui DS. Super-spreading events of
MERS-CoV infection. Lancet 2016;388
(10048):942-3.
35. Shen Z, Ning F, Zhou W, et al.
Superspreading SARS events, Beijing,
2003. Emerg Infect Dis 2004;10(2):256-60.
36. Michienzi SM, Burgos RM, Novak RM.
Mycobacterium conceptionense
pneumonitis in patient with HIV/AIDS.
Emerg Infect Dis 2019;25(10):1986-8.
37. Tobin-D’Angelo M, Oosmanally N,
Wilson SN, et al. Shigella bacteremia,
Georgia, USA, 2002-2012. Emerg Infect Dis
2020;26(1):122-4.
38. Wilson ME. Travel and the emergence
of infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis
1995;1(2):39-46.
39. Cherry JD. The chronology of the 2002-
2003 SARS mini pandemic. Paediatr Respir
Rev 2004;5(4):262-9.
40. Tatem AJ, Rogers DJ, Hay SI. Global
transport networks and infectious disease
spread. Adv Parasitol 2006;62:293-343.
41. Wilcox B, Ellis B. Forests and emerging
infectious diseases of humans. Unasylva
2006;57:11-8.
42. Bloomfield LSP, McIntosh TL, Lambin
EF. Habitat fragmentation, livelihood
behaviors, and contact between people
and nonhuman primates in Africa. Landsc
Ecol 2020;35(4):985-1000.
43. Olivero J, Fa JE, Real R, et al. Recent
loss of closed forests is associated with
Ebola virus disease outbreaks. Sci Rep
2017;7(1):14291.
44. Southgate VR. Schistosomiasis in the
Senegal River Basin: before and after
the construction of the dams at Diama,
Senegal and Manantali, Mali and future
prospects. J Helminthol 1997;71(2):
125-32.
45. Steinmann P, Keiser J, Bos R, et al.
Schistosomiasis and water resources
development: systematic review, metaanalysis, and estimates of people at risk.
Lancet Infect Dis 2006;6(7):411-25.
46. Sokolow SH, Jones IJ, Jocque M, et al.
Nearly 400 million people are at higher
risk of schistosomiasis because dams
block the migration of snail-eating river
prawns. Philos T R Soc B 2017;372(1722).
47. Caminade C, Kovats S, Rocklov J, et al.
Impact of climate change on global
malaria distribution. Proc Natl Acad Sci
USA 2014;111(9):3286-91.
48. Chretien JP, Anyamba A, Small J, et al.
Global climate anomalies and potential
infectious disease risks: 2014-2015.
PLoS Curr 2015;7. doi: 10.1371/currents.
outbreaks.95fbc4a8fb4695e049baabfc
2fc8289f.
49. Kovats RS, Bouma MJ, Hajat S, et al. El
Nino and health. Lancet 2003;362(9394):
1481-9.
50. Flahault A, de Castaneda RR, Bolon I.
Climate change and infectious diseases.
Public Health Rev 2016;37:21.
51. Phupat P, Sittisak S, Pimrat K, et al.
Epidemiological and serological study of
re-emerging diphtheria in Dansai District,
Loei Province, Thailand, June to October
2012. OSIR 2015;8(1):13-21.
52. Phadke VK, Bednarczyk RA, Salmon DA,
et al. Association between vaccine refusal
and vaccine-preventable diseases in the
United States: a review of measles and
pertussis. JAMA 2016;315(11):1149-58.
53. Wallin T, Holzschuh E, Kintner C. Notes
from the field: rubella infection in an
unvaccinated pregnant woman - Johnson
County, Kansas, December 2017. MMWR
2018;67(40):1132-3.
54. Akil L, Ahmad HA. The recent outbreaks
and reemergence of poliovirus in war and
conflict-affected areas. Int J Infect Dis
2016;49:40-6.
55. Mac Kenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, et
al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of
cryptosporidium infection transmitted
through the public water supply. N Engl
J Med 1994;331(3):161-7.
56. Frank C, Werber D, Cramer JP, et al.
Epidemic profile of Shiga-toxin-producing
Escherichia coli O104:H4 outbreak in
Germany. N Engl J Med 2011;365(19):
1771-80.
57. Gelting R, Bliss K, Patrick M, et al. Water,
sanitation and hygiene in Haiti: past,
present, and future. Am J Trop Med Hyg
2013;89(4):665-70.
58. Chin CS, Sorenson J, Harris JB, et al. The
origin of the Haitian cholera outbreak
strain. N Engl J Med 2011;364(1):33-42.
59. Relman DA, Loutit JS, Schmidt TM, et al.
The agent of bacillary angiomatosis. An
approach to the identification of
uncultured pathogens. N Engl J Med
1990;323(23):1573-80.
60. Ablashi DV, Eastman HB, Owen CB, et al.
Frequent HHV-6 reactivation in multiple
sclerosis (MS) and chronic fatigue
syndrome (CFS) patients. J Clin Virol
2000;16(3):179-91.
61. Alvarez-Lafuente R, Garcia-Montojo M, De
las Heras V, et al. Clinical parameters and
HHV-6 active replication in relapsingremitting multiple sclerosis patients. J Clin
Virol 2006;37 (Sppl) 1:S24-6.
62. Pierce ES. Could Mycobacterium avium
subspecies paratuberculosis cause
Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis and
colorectal cancer? Infect Agents Cancer
2018;13:1.
63. Fashner J, Gitu AC. Diagnosis and treatment
of peptic ulcer disease and Helicobacter
pylori Infection. Am Fam Physician
2015;91(4):236-42.
64. Aslam B, Wang W, Arshad MI, et al.
Antibiotic resistance: a rundown of a
global crisis. Infect Drug Resist
2018;11:1645-58.
65. Manyi-Loh C, Mamphweli S, Meyer E, et
al. Antibiotic use in agriculture and its
consequential resistance in environmental
sources: potential public health
implications. Molecules 2018;23(4):795.
66. Marshall BM, Levy SB. Food animals and
antimicrobials: impacts on human health.
Clin Microbiol Rev 2011;24(4):718-33.
67. Engering A, Hogerwerf L, Slingenbergh J.
Pathogen-host-environment interplay and
disease emergence. Emerg Microbes Infect
2013;2(2):e5. doi: 10.1038/emi.2013.5.
68. Rezza G. Chikungunya is back in Italy:
2007–2017. J Travel Med 2018;25(1). doi:
10.1093/jtm/tay004.
69. Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, et al. A novel
coronavirus from patients with pneumonia
in China, 2019. N Engl J Med 2020;382(8):
727-33.
70. Li X, Giorgi EE, Marichannegowda MH, et
al. Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 through
recombination and strong purifying
selection. Sci Adv 2020:e9153. doi:
10.1101/2020.03.20.000885.
71. Zhou H, Chen X, Hu T, et al. A novel bat
coronavirus closely related to SARS-CoV-2
contains natural insertions at the S1/S2
cleavage site of the spike protein. Curr
Biol 2020;30(11):2196-203.
72. Allen T, Murray KA, Zambrana-Torrelio C,
et al. Global hotspots and correlates of
emerging zoonotic diseases. Nat Commun
2017;8(1):1124.
73. Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, et al. Early transmission
dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel
coronavirus–infected pneumonia. N Engl
J Med 2020;382(13):1199-207.
74. World Health Organization. Modes of
transmission of virus causing COVID-19:
implications of IPC precaution
recommendations [Internet] 2020 [cited
2020 June 2]. Available from: https://
www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/
detail/modes-of-transmission-of-viruscausing-covid-19-implications-for-ipcprecaution-recommendations.
75. Al-Tawfiq JA, Rodriguez-Morales AJ. Superspreading events and contribution to
transmission of MERS, SARS, and COVID-19.
J Hosp Infect 2020;105:111-2.
76. Arons MM, Hatfield KM, Reddy SC, et al.
Presymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infections
and transmission in a skilled nursing
facility. N Engl J Med 2020;382(22):
2081-90.
77. Tian S, Hu N, Lou J, et al. Characteristics
of COVID-19 infection in Beijing. J Infect
2020;80(4):401-6.
78. World Health Organization. WHO directorgeneral’s opening remarks at the media
briefing on COVID-19 [Internet] 2020 [cited
2020 June 2]. Available from: https://
www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/whodirector-general-s-opening-remarks-atthe-media-briefing-on-covid-19-11-
march-2020.
79. World Health Organization. Strengthening
the health system response to COVID-19:
recommendations for the WHO European
Region [Internet] 2020 [cited 2020 June
2]. Available from: http://www.euro.who.
int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/436350/
strengthening-health-system-responseCOVID-19.pdf?ua=1.
Downloads
Published
2020-08-31
How to Cite
1.
Tingpej P. Factors contributing to the occurrence of emerging infectious diseases including COVID-19. J Med Health Sci [Internet]. 2020 Aug. 31 [cited 2024 Apr. 20];27(2):140-56. Available from: https://he01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/jmhs/article/view/244783
Issue
Section
Review Article (บทความวิชาการ)
