Review article: Tuberculosis diagnosis: From knowledge to innovation in public health
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Published:
Jan 1, 2017
Keywords:
Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex tuberculosis tuberculosis diagnostic
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Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a serious global infectious disease caused by inhalation of droplets containing bacterial cells classified as Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC). Among MTBC, M. tuberculosis has been known as the main causal agent of TB. MTBC infection usually exhibits pulmonary tuberculosis, but extrapulmonary tuberculosis can also be detected among TB cases. Acid fast stain, culture method and biochemical tests are standard protocols. However, MTBC is a slow growing organism and sometime generates controversial results of the biochemical tests. These result in inaccurate and delayed diagnosis and treatment that lead to inefficient control of TB. Thus, rapid and accurate TB diagnosis method and drug susceptibility test are essential. Previously, alternative techniques were newly developed, for example, fluorescence stain with increased sensitivity for directly detection MTBC in sputum specimen. The automated liquid culture system with reduced culture time among TB-positive samples. In addition, in order to increase sensitivity and specificity while reducing time of diagnosis, several molecular techniques were developed such as GeneXpert MTB/RIF, Line probe and Urinary LAM. Recently, a novel diagnostic kit so called “IMS-PCR-CTPP” was developed based on the improvement of Mycobacterium binding in direct specimen using monoclonal antibody coated immunomagnatic beads prior to bacterial identification using PCR-CTPP targetting the novel target gene, lepB. Unlike previously reported techniques, it offers simultaneous determination of MTBC and Mycobacterium bovis infection. Obviously, there are various methods currently available for diagnosis of TB, however, they possess distinct advantages and limitations. Therefore, applying the combination of standard and new techniques will significantly improve accuracy and reduce time of TB diagnosis, which is crucial for effective treatment and control of TB.
Journal of Associated Medical Sciences 2017; 50(1): 1-21. Doi: 10.14456/jams.2017.1
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Sitthidet Tharinjaroen, C. (2017). Review article: Tuberculosis diagnosis: From knowledge to innovation in public health. Journal of Associated Medical Sciences, 50(1), 1. Retrieved from https://he01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/bulletinAMS/article/view/74776
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Personal views expressed by the contributors in their articles are not necessarily those of the Journal of Associated Medical Sciences, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University.
References
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2. McNerney R, Maeurer M, Abubakar I, Marais B, McHugh TD, Ford N, et al. Tuberculosis diagnostics and biomarkers: needs, challenges, recent advances, and opportunities. J Infect Dis 2012; 205 Suppl 2: S147-58
3. Cobelens FG, Egwaga SM, van Ginkel T, Muwinge H, Matee MI, Borgdorff MW. Tuberculin skin testing in patients with HIV infection: limited benefit of reduced cutoff values. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: 634-9.
4. Revision of the case definition for sputum smear positive pulmonary TB Background document [Internet]. World Health Oraganization. 2016 [cited 11 November 2016]. Available from: http://www.who.int/tb/laboratory/proposal_for_a_revision_of_the_case_definition_of_sputum.pdf
5. Weldu Y, Asrat D, Woldeamanuel Y, Hailesilasie A. Comparative evaluation of a two-reagent cold stain method with Ziehl-Nelseen method for pulmonary tuberculosis diagnosis. BMC Res Notes 2013; 6: 323
6. Reider HL, Deun AV, Kam KM, Kim SJ, Chonde TM, Trébucq A, et al. Table II.3. Grading scales for bright field (Ziehl-Neelsen) and fluorescence microscopy. In: Priorities for Tuberculosis Bacteriology Services in Low-income countries. 2nd ed. Paris: International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (The Union); 2007.
7. Vignesh R, Balakrishnan P, Shankar EM, Murugavel KG, Hanas S, Cecelia AJ, et al. Value of single acid-fast bacilli sputum smears in the diagnosis of tuberculosis in HIV-positive subjects. J Med Microbiol 2007; 56: 1709-10.
8. Simner P, Stenger S, Richter E, Brown-Elliott B, Wallace R, Wengenack N. Mycobacterium: Laboratory Characteristics of Slowly Growing Mycobacteria*. In: Jorgensen J, Pfaller M, Carroll K, Funke G, Landry M, Richter S, Warnock D editors. Manual of Clinical Microbiology. 11th ed. Washington, ASM Press, 2015. p. 570-94.
9. Martin A, Cubillos-Ruiz A, Von Groll A, Del Portillo P, Portaels F, Palomino JC. Nitrate reductase assay for the rapid detection of pyrazinamide resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis using nicotinamide. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 61: 123-7.
10. Non-commercial culture and drug-susceptibility testing methods for screening of patients at risk of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2011 [cited 23 December 2016]. Available from: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44601/1/9789241501620_eng.pdf
11. New laboratory diagnostic tools for tuberculosis control [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008 [cited 23 December 2016]. Available from: http://www.stoptb.org/assets/documents/global/retooling/Diagnostic_Brochure_Print_2009_Jan_29.pdf
12. Wayne LG, Diaz GA, Doubek JR. Acquired isoniazid resistance and catalase activity of myobacteria. Am Rev Respir Dis 1968; 97: 909-13.
13. Wang G, Yu X, Liang Q, Chen S, Wilson S, Huang H. Evaluation of a simple in-house test to presumptively differentiate Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex from nontuberculous mycobacteria by detection of p-nitrobenzoic acid metabolites. PloS one 2013; 8: e80877
14. Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) Growth on PNB medium [Internet]. Stoptb.org. 2016 [cited 1 November 2016]. Available from: http://www.stoptb.org/wg/gli/assets/documents/36_growth_on_pnb_fin.doc
15. Pradhan P. Tween 80 hydrolysis test [Internet]. Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. 2016 [cited 9 September 2016]. Available from: http://microbesinfo.com/2015/03/tween-80-hydrolysis-test/
16. Acharya T. Key biochemical methods used to distinguish Mycobacterial group [Internet]. www.microbeonline.com. 2013 [cited 9 September 2016]. Available from: http://microbeonline.com/key-biochemical-methods-used-to-distinguish-mycobacterial-group/
17. Urease Test [Internet]. Austincc.edu. 2016 [cited 9 September 2016]. Available from: http://www.austincc.edu/microbugz/urease_test.php
18. Wayne LG. Simple pyrazinamidase and urease tests for routine identification of mycobacteria. Am Rev Respir Dis 1974; 109: 147–51.
19. Winn W, Allen S, Janda W, Koneman E, Procop G, Schreckenberger P, et al. Koneman’s color atlas and textbook of diagnostic microbiology. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006.
20. CLSI. Susceptibility Testing of Mycobacteria, Nocardia, and Other Aerobic Actinomycetes; Approved Standard–2nd ed. CLSI document M24–A2. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; 2011.
21. O’Grady J, Maeurer M, Mwaba P, Kapata N, Bates M, Hoelscher M, et al. New and improved diagnostics for detection of drug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2010; 17: 134-41.
22. McNerney R, Maeurer M, Abubakar I, Marais B, McHugh TD, Ford N, et al. Tuberculosis diagnostics and biomarkers: needs, challenges, recent advances, and opportunities. J Infect Dis. 2012; 205 Suppl 2: S147-58.
23. Gazi MA, Islam MR, Kibria MG, Mahmud Z. General and advanced diagnostic tools to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis and their drug susceptibility: a review. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2015; 34: 851-61
24. Desikan P. Sputum smear microscopy in tuberculosis: is it still relevant? Indian J Med Res 2013; 137: 442-4.
25. Steingart KR, Henry M, Ng V, Hopewell PC, Ramsay A, Cunningham J, et al. Fluorescence versus conventional sputum smear microscopy for tuberculosis: a systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis 2006; 6: 570-81.
26. Rawat J, Biswas D, Sindhwani G, Masih V. An alternative 1-day smear microscopy protocol for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. Respirology 2010; 15: 1127-30.
27. Strategic and technical advisory group for tuberculosis: Report of the 9th meeting [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2009 [cited 23 December 2016]. Available from: http://www.who.int/tb/advisory_bodies/stag_tb_report_2009.pdf.
28. Lin SY, Desmond E, Bonato D, Gross W, Siddiqi S. Multicenter evaluation of Bactec MGIT 960 system for second-line drug susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. J Clin Microbiol 2009; 47: 3630-4.
29. DeLand FH, Wagner HN, Jr. Early detection of bacterial growth, with carbon-14-labeled glucose. Radiology 1969; 92: 154-5.
30. Roberts GD, Goodman NL, Heifets L, Larsh HW, Lindner TH, McClatchy JK, et al. Evaluation of the BACTEC radiometric method for recovery of mycobacteria and drug susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from acid-fast smear-positive specimens. J Clin Microbiol 1983; 18: 689-96
31. Cruciani M, Scarparo C, Malena M, Bosco O, Serpelloni G, Mengoli C. Meta-analysis of BACTEC MGIT 960 and BACTEC 460 TB, with or without solid media, for detection of mycobacteria. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 2321-5.
32. Siddiqi SH, Laszlo A, Butler WR, Kilburn JO. Bacteriologic investigations of unusual mycobacteria isolated from immunocompromised patients. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1993; 16: 321-3.
33. Ferrara G, O’Grady J, Zumla A, Maeurer M. Xpert MTB/RIF test for tuberculosis. Lancet 2011; 378: 482-3.
34. Blakemore R, Story E, Helb D, Kop J, Banada P, Owens MR, et al. Evaluation of the analytical performance of the Xpert MTB/RIF assay. J of Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 2495-501.
35. Boehme CC, Nabeta P, Hillemann D, Nicol MP, Shenai S, Krapp F, et al. Rapid molecular detection of tuberculosis and rifampin resistance. N Engl J Med 2010; 363: 1005-15.
36. INNO-LiPA MYCOBACTERIA v2 from Fujirebio Europe. A line probe assay for the simultaneous detection and identification of the genus Mycobacterium and 16 different mycobacterial species [Internet]. Fujirebio-europe.com. 2016 [cited 9 September 2016]. Available from: https://www.fujirebio-europe.com/products-services/product-browser/inno-lipar-mycobacteria-v2
37. MOLECULAR LINE PROBE ASSAYS FOR RAPID SCREENING OF PATIENTS AT RISK OF MULTI-DRUG RESISTANT TUBERCULOSIS (MDR-TB) [Internet]. www.who.int. 2008 [cited 9 September 2016]. Available from: http://www.who.int/tb/features_archive/expert_group_report_june08.pdf
38. GenoType Mycobacterium CM | Detection and differentiation of clinically relevant NTM [Internet]. Hain-lifescience.de. 2016 [cited 9 September 2016]. Available from: http://www.hain-lifescience.de/en/products/microbiology/mycobacteria/ntm/genotype-mycobacterium-cm.html
39. Iwamoto T, Sonobe T, Hayashi K. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification for direct detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, M. avium, and M. intracellulare in sputum samples. J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41: 2616-22.
40. Brady MF, Coronel J, Gilman RH, Moore DA. The MODS method for diagnosis of tuberculosis and multidrug resistant tuberculosis. J Vis Exp 2008; 18. e845. PubMed PMID: 19066507.
41. Moore DA, Evans CA, Gilman RH, Caviedes L, Coronel J, Vivar A, et al. Microscopic-observation drug-susceptibility assay for the diagnosis of TB. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 1539-50.
42. Caviedes L, Lee TS, Gilman RH, Sheen P, Spellman E, Lee EH, et al. Rapid, efficient detection and drug susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in sputum by microscopic observation of broth cultures. The Tuberculosis Working Group in Peru. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38: 1203-8.
43. Wang L, Mohammad SH, Chaiyasirinroje B, Li Q, Rienthong S, Rienthong D, et al. Evaluating the Auto-MODS assay, a novel tool for tuberculosis diagnosis for use in resource-limited settings. J Clin Microbiol 2015; 53: 172-8.
44. Wallis RS, Pai M, Menzies D, Doherty TM, Walzl G, Perkins MD, et al. Biomarkers and diagnostics for tuberculosis: progress, needs, and translation into practice. Lancet 2010; 375: 1920-37.
45. Lawn SD, Zumla AI. Tuberculosis. Lancet 2011; 378: 57-72.
46. Pai M, Denkinger CM, Kik SV, Rangaka MX, Zwerling A, Oxlade O, et al. Gamma interferon release assays for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Clin Microbiol Rev 2014; 27: 3-20.
47. Cattamanchi A, Smith R, Steingart KR, Metcalfe JZ, Date A, Coleman C, et al. Interferon-gamma release assays for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV-infected individuals: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010; 56: 230-8.
48. Denkinger CM, Dheda K, Pai M. Guidelines on interferon-gamma release assays for tuberculosis infection: concordance, discordance or confusion? Clin Microbiol Infect 2011; 17: 806-14.
49. Lawn SD. Point-of-care detection of lipoarabinomannan (LAM) in urine for diagnosis of HIV-associated tuberculosis: a state of the art review. BMC Infect Dis 2012; 12: 103. PubMed PMID: 22536883.
50. Shah M, Variava E, Holmes CB, Coppin A, Golub JE, McCallum J, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of a urine lipoarabinomannan test for tuberculosis in hospitalized patients in a High HIV prevalence setting. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009; 52: 145-51
51. The use of lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan assay (LF-LAM) for the diagnosis and screening of active tuberculosis in people living with HIV [Internet]. Apps.who.int. 2015 [cited 9 September 2016]. Available from: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/193633/1/9789241509633_eng.pdf?ua=1&ua=1
52. Harari A, Rozot V, Enders FB, Perreau M, Stalder JM, Nicod LP, et al. Dominant TNF-alpha+ Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific CD4+ T cell responses discriminate between latent infection and active disease. Nat Med 2010; 17: 372-6.
53. Streitz M, Tesfa L, Yildirim V, Yahyazadeh A, Ulrichs T, Lenkei R, et al. Loss of receptor on tuberculin-reactive T-cells marks active pulmonary tuberculosis. PLoS One 2007; 2: e735. PubMed PMID: 17710135.
54. Harari A, Rozot V, Bellutti Enders F, Perreau M, Stalder JM, Nicod LP, et al. Dominant TNF-alpha+ Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific CD4+ T cell responses discriminate between latent infection and active disease. Nat Med 2011; 17: 372-6 .
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