Sociodemographic factors, environmental, community mobility and health indicators associated with the spread of COVID-19 and case fatality rate in Indonesia: an ecological study 10.55131/jphd/2022/200202

Main Article Content

Omat Rachmat
Sugeng Setyadi
Andi Kustanto

Abstract

On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a global pandemic due to its Case Fatality Rate (CFR) and numerous determining factors. Therefore, this study aims to identify the sociodemographic, environmental, community mobility, and health indicators associated with the pandemic and CFR. The design applied is an ecological study with data collected from 34 provinces in Indonesia and analyzed using the Spearman correlation. The results showed that independent variables such as population, density, the number of workers engaged in micro and small enterprises, hotel rooms, stroke, diabetes, general practitioners, specialists, nurses, PHC per district, PHC plus, and COVID-19 referral hospitals were positive and significant to the COVID-19 cases (p<0.01). Poverty in rural areas, elderly in rural and urban areas, sanitation, and hypertension were positive and significant to COVID-19 cases (p<0.05). Retail and recreation, grocery and pharmacy, transit stations, and residential areas were negative and significant to COVID-19 cases (p<0.01). Population growth rate, workplaces, and poverty in rural areas were negative and significant to COVID-19 cases (p<0.05). Elderly in rural and urban areas, urban slum households, immunization, and hypertension were positive and significant to CFR (p<0.05). The government needs to prevent the spread of the virus in provinces, especially in areas with high population and density, increased elderly population, low immunization rate, poor sanitation, and a significant number of residents living with comorbidities, such as stroke, hypertension, and diabetes. Furthermore, beds, tents, emergency buildings, oxygen cylinders, and multilevel referral systems between health facilities need to be provided. The government also needs to limit the inflow of people abroad, optimize the Work from Home (WFH) policy, and limit community mobility outside the home, especially in Bali.

Article Details

How to Cite
1.
Rachmat O, Setyadi S, Kustanto A. Sociodemographic factors, environmental, community mobility and health indicators associated with the spread of COVID-19 and case fatality rate in Indonesia: an ecological study: 10.55131/jphd/2022/200202. J Public Hlth Dev [Internet]. 2022 May 1 [cited 2024 Mar. 28];20(2):12-31. Available from: https://he01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/AIHD-MU/article/view/256101
Section
Original Articles
Author Biographies

Omat Rachmat, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, Banten 42163, Indonesia

Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, Banten 42163, Indonesia

Sugeng Setyadi, Department of Economics, Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, Banten 42163, Indonesia

Department of Economics, Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, Banten 42163, Indonesia

Andi Kustanto, Department of Economics, Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, Banten 42163, Indonesia

Department of Economics, Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, Banten 42163, Indonesia

References

World Health Organization. Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV): Situation Report 10. Geneva: World Health Organization [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2021 Sep 7]. Available from: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200130-sitrep-10-ncov.pdf?sfvrsn=d0b2e480_2

Dzikrullah AA. Bunga Rampai Skenario Covid-19. In: The Divisive Analysis (DIANA) On COVID-19 Risks in Province in Indonesia. 1st ed. Yogyakarta: Department of Statistics Faculty of Mathematics and Science The Islamic University of Indonesia; 2021. p. 1–8.

Aisyah DN, Mayadewi CA, Diva H, Kozlakidis Z, Siswanto, Adisasmito W. A spatial-temporal description of the SARS-CoV-2 infections in Indonesia during the first six months of outbreak. PLOS ONE. 2020;15(12):e0243703.

Susilo A, Rumende CM, Pitoyo CW, Santoso WD, Yulianti M, Herikurniawan H, et al. Coronavirus Disease 2019: Tinjauan Literatur Terkini. J Penyakit Dalam Indones. 2020 7(1):45. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7454/jpdi.v7i1.415

Sparrow R, Dartanto T, Hartwig R. Indonesia Under the New Normal: Challenges and the Way Ahead. Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies. Bull Indones Econ Stud. 2020;56(3):269-99.

Djalante R, Lassa J, Setiamarga D, Sudjatma A, Indrawan M, Haryanto B, et al. Review and analysis of current responses to COVID-19 in Indonesia: Period of January to March 2020. Prog Disaster Sci. 2020;6.

Susilawati S, Falefi R, Purwoko A. Impact of COVID-19’s Pandemic on the Economy of Indonesia. Budapest Int Res Critics Inst Humanit Soc Sci. 2020;3(2):1147–56.

Arnani M. Indonesia Masuk 10 Besar Negara di Asia dengan Kasus Covid-19 Terbanyak, Ini Daftarnya [Internet]. Kompas. 2020 [cited 2021 Sep 16]. Available from: https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2020/09/21/070300565/indonesia-masuk-10-besar-negara-di-asia-dengan-kasus-covid-19-terbanyak-ini?page=all

Pasley J. Here’s how Indonesia — where “ghosts” representing trapped souls are scaring people into maintaining lockdown — went from no cases in early March to having the second highest death rate in Asia [Internet]. INSIDER. 2020 [cited 2021 Sep 16]. Available from: https://www.insider.com/photo-indonesia-no-cases-to-second-most-deaths-in-asia-2020-4

Zhou W. The Coronavirus Prevention Handbook: 101 Science-Based Tips That Could Save Your Life. 101 Science Based Tips That Could Save Your Life. Delaware: Skyhorse Publishing; 2020.

Saadat S, Rawtani D, Hussain CM. Environmental perspective of COVID-19. Science of The Total Environment. 2020;728:138870. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138870

Chadeau-Hyam M, Bodinier B, Elliott J, Whitaker MD, Tzoulaki I, Vermeulen R, et al. Risk factors for positive and negative COVID-19 tests: A cautious and in-depth analysis of UK biobank data. Int J Epidemiol. 2020;49(5):1454–67.

Wijaya C. Pandemi Covid-19: Keyakinan “tak akan tertular” dipicu keinginan pemerintah “tak menakut-nakuti” atau “komunikasi yang tidak jujur” [Internet]. BBC News Indonesia. 2020 [cited 2021 Nov 2]. Available from: https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/indonesia-53482825

Acharya R, Porwal A. A vulnerability index for the management of and response to the COVID-19 epidemic in India: an ecological study. Lancet Glob Heal. 2020;8(9):e1142–51. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30300-4

Ilesanmi OS, Oderinde TM, Afolabi AA. The urban slums: Potential source of COVID-19 spikes in Africa. Public Health in Practice. 2020;1:100052. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhip.2020.100052

Nanda S. Inequalities and COVID-19. In: Ryan JM, editor. COVID-19: Volume 1: Global Pandemic, Societal, Responses, Ideological Solutions. 1st Editio. Milton Park, Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, England, UK: Routledge; 2020. p. 109–23.

Brauer M, Zhao JT, Bennit FB, Stanaway JD. Global Access to Handwashing: Implications for COVID-19 Control in Low-Income Countries. Environ Health Perspect. 2020;128(5):1–6.

Miller MJ, Loaiza JR, Takyar A, Gilman RH. Covid-19 in latin america: Novel transmission dynamics for a global pandemic? PLOS Negl Trop Dis. 2020;14(5):1–5. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0008265

Zakianis, Adzania FH, Fauzia S, Aryati GP, Mahkota R. Sociodemographic and environmental health risk factor of COVID-19 in Jakarta, Indonesia: An ecological study. One Heal. 2021;13:100303. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2021.100303

Permatasari D. Kebijakan COVID-19 dari PSBB hingga PPKM Empat Level [Internet]. Kompas. 2021 [cited 2021 Sep 20]. Available from: https://kompaspedia.kompas.id/baca/infografik/kronologi/kebijakan-covid-19-dari-psbb-hingga-ppkm-empat-level

Suraya I, Nurmansyah MI, Rachmawati E, Al Aufa B, Koire II. The impact of large-scale social restrictions on the incidence of covid-19 : A case study of four provinces in Indonesia. Kesmas. 2020;15(2):49–53.

Ariawan I. Pelaksanaan PSBB & Dampaknya Terhadap Pandemi COVID-19 di Indonesia [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www.fkm.ui.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Webinar-FKMUI-IA-060520.pdf

Nurita D. Satgas: Indonesia Masuk Gelombang Kedua Pandemi Covid-19 [Internet]. Tempo. 2021 [cited 2021 Sep 19]. Available from: https://nasional.tempo.co/read/1478038/satgas-indonesia-masuk-gelombang-kedua-pandemi-covid-19

Cindy Mutia Annur. Kematian Akibat Covid-19 Tembus 18 Ribu, Indonesia Peringkat ke-3 di Asia [Internet]. Katadata. 2020 [cited 2021 Sep 18]. Available from: https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2020/12/10/kematian-akibat-covid-19-tembus-18-ribu-indonesia-peringkat-ke-3-di-asia

Rizati MA. Kasus Kematian Covid-19 Indonesia Masih Tertinggi Kedua di Asia [Internet]. Katadata. 2021 [cited 2021 Sep 18]. Available from: https://databoks.katadata.co.id/datapublish/2021/09/16/kasus-kematian-covid-19-indonesia-masih-tertinggi-kedua-di-asia

Schlein L. Smokers at Greater Risk of Dying from COVID-19 [Internet]. VOA News. 2021 [cited 2021 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www.voanews.com/a/science-health_smokers-greater-risk-dying-covid-19/6206433.html

Parapuan. WHO: Perokok Lebih Berisiko Meninggal akibat Covid-19 [Internet]. Kompas. 2021 [cited 2021 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www.kompas.com/sains/read/2021/06/02/130123723/who-perokok-lebih-berisiko-meninggal-akibat-covid-19?page=all

World Health Organization. Menaikkan Harga Cukai dan Harga Produk Tembakau untuk Indonesia Sehat dan Sejahtera. World Health Organization, Regional Office for South-East Asia; 2020. p. 1–30.

GlobalData. Cigarettes in Indonesia [Internet]. GlobalData. 2019 [cited 2021 Sep 19]. Available from: https://www.globaldata.com

Ministry of Health. Indonesia Basic Health Research 2018. Jakarta; 2018.

Wahyuni NC. Indonesia Currently Has Highest Covid-19 Mortality Rate in Asia [Internet]. The Jakarta Globe. 2020 [cited 2021 Sep 19]. Available from: https://jakartaglobe.id/news/indonesia-currently-has-highest-covid19-mortality-rate-in-asia

Mardiansjah FH, Handayani W, Setyono JS. Pertumbuhan Penduduk Perkotaan dan Perkembangan Pola Distribusinya pada Kawasan Metropolitan Surakarta. J Wil dan Lingkung. 2018;6(3):215.

Wilonoyudho S, Rijanta R, Keban YT, Setiawan B. Urbanization and regional imbalances in Indonesia. Indones J Geogr. 2017;49(2):125–32.

Kustanto A. Pertumbuhan Ekonomi Regional di Indonesia: Peran Infrastruktur, Modal Manusia dan Keterbukaan Perdagangan. Bul Stud Ekon. 2020;25(1):80–98.

Otekunrin OA, Fasina FO, Omotayo AO, Otekunrin OA, Akram M. COVID-19 in Nigeria: Why continuous spike in cases? Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2021;14(1):1–4.

Adegboye OA, Adekunle AI, Gayawan E. Early transmission dynamics of novel coronavirus (Covid-19) in Nigeria. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(9):1–10.

Gilbert M, Pullano G, Pinotti F, Valdano E, Poletto C, Boëlle PY, et al. Preparedness and vulnerability of African countries against importations of COVID-19: a modelling study. Lancet. 2020;395(10227):871–7.

Otekunrin OA, Otekunrin OA, Fasina FO, Omotayo AO, Akram M. Assessing the Zero Hunger Target Readiness in Africa in the Face of COVID-19 Pandemic. Caraka Tani J Sustain Agric. 2020;35(2):213.

Hikmah N, Rahman H, Puspitasari A. Membandingkan Ketimpangan Ketersediaan Tenaga Kesehatan Puskesmas di Wilayah di Indonesia Timur. Wind Public Heal J. 2020;1(1):31–7.

Mahendradhata Y, Trisnantoro L, Listyadewi S, Soewondo P, Marthias T, Harimurti P, et al. The Republic of Indonesia Health System Review. Hort K, Patcjaranarumol W, editors. Vol. 7. New Delhi: World Health Organization; 2017.

Harahap NP. Kajian Sektor Kesehatan: Sumber Daya Manusia Kesehatan. 05 ed. Siahaan RGM, Ariteja S, Ali PB, Gan A, editors. Jakarta: Ministry of National Development Planning/National Development Planning Agency; 2019. p.1–46.

Clouston SAP, Natale G, Link BG. Socioeconomic inequalities in the spread of coronavirus-19 in the United States: A examination of the emergence of social inequalities. Soc Sci Med. 2021;268:113554. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113554

Hawkins RB, Charles EJ, Mehaffey JH. Socio-economic status and COVID-19–related cases and fatalities. Public Health. 2020;189:129–34. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2020.09.016

Karmakar M, Lantz PM, Tipirneni R. Association of Social and Demographic Factors with COVID-19 Incidence and Death Rates in the US. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(1):1–12.

Khobragade AW, Kadam DD. Spatial mapping and socio‑demographic determinants of COVID‑19 mortality in India. J Fam Med Prim Care. 2021;10(11):4200–4.

Wirawan GBS, Januraga PP. Correlation of Demographics, Healthcare Availability, and COVID-19 Outcome: Indonesian Ecological Study. Front Public Health. 2021;9:605290. doi: 0.3389/fpubh.2021.605290

Abedi V, Olulana O, Avula V, Chaudhary D, Khan A, Shahjouei S, et al. Racial, Economic, and Health Inequality and COVID-19 Infection in the United States. J Racial Ethn Heal Disparities. 2021;8(3):732–42.

Kishore K, Jaswal V, Verma M, Koushal V. Exploring the utility of google mobility data during the COVID-19 pandemic in India: Digital epidemiological analysis. JMIR Public Heal Surveill. 2021;7(8):1–17.

Yechezkel M, Weiss A, Rejwan I, Shahmoon E, Ben-Gal S, Yamin D. Human mobility and poverty as key drivers of COVID-19 transmission and control. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):1–13.

OECD. Environmental health and strengthening resilience to pandemics. OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus. 2020:2–14.

Warner ME, Zhang X, Gonz M. Which state and cities protect residents from water shutoffs in the COVID-19 pandemic? Util Policy. 2020;67:101118.

Mollalo A, Rivera KM, Vahabi N. Spatial statistical analysis of pre-existing mortalities of 20 diseases with COVID-19 mortalities in the continental United States. Sustainable Cities and Society. 2021;67:102738. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.102738

Petrosino SP, Ph D, Matende BN. Shortened Telomere Length is Associated with Adverse Outcomes in COVID-19 Disease. J Community Med Public Heal Reports. 2021;2(5):1–20.

Richardson S, Hirsch JS, Narasimhan M, Crawford JM, McGinn T, Davidson KW, et al. Presenting Characteristics, Comorbidities, and Outcomes among 5700 Patients Hospitalized with COVID-19 in the New York City Area. JAMA. 2020;323(20):2052–9.

Buja A, Paganini M, Cocchio S, Scioni M, Rebba V, Baldo V. Demographic and socio-economic factors, and healthcare resource indicators associated with the rapid spread of COVID-19 in Northern Italy: An ecological study. PLOS ONE. 2020;15:1–13. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244535

Khan JR, Awan N, Islam MM, Muurlink O. Healthcare Capacity, Health Expenditure, and Civil Society as Predictors of COVID-19 Case Fatalities: A Global Analysis. Frontiers in Public Health. 2020;8. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00347

Schober P, Schwarte LA. Correlation coefficients: Appropriate use and interpretation. Anesth Analg. 2018;126(5):1763–8. doi: 10.1016/j.lanwpc.2021.100108

Sandilands D (Dallie). Bivariate Analysis. In: Michalos AC, editor. Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Dordrecht: Springer; 2014. p. 416–8.

Surendra H, Elyazar IR, Djaafara BA, Ekawati LL, Saraswati K, Adrian V, et al. Clinical characteristics and mortality associated with COVID-19 in Jakarta, Indonesia: A hospital-based retrospective cohort study. Lancet Reg Health West Pac. 2021;9:100108.

Clark A, Jit M, Warren-Gash C, Guthrie B, Wang HHX, Mercer SW, et al. Global, regional, and national estimates of the population at increased risk of severe COVID-19 due to underlying health conditions in 2020: a modelling study. Lancet Glob Heal. 2020;8(8):e1003–17.

Rocklöv J, Sjödin H. High population densities catalyze the spread of COVID-19. J Travel Med. 2020;27(3):1–2.

Sy KTL, White LF, Nichols BE. Population density and basic reproductive number of COVID-19 across United States counties. PLOS ONE. 2021;16(4):e0249271. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249271

Wong DWS, Li Y. Spreading of COVID-19: Density matters. PLOS ONE. 2020;15(12):e0242398. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242398

Siagian TH. Corona Dengan Discourse Network Analysis. J Kebijak Kesehat Indones. 2020;09(2):98–106.

Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, Fan G, Liu Y, Liu Z, et al. Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet. 2020;395(10229):1054–62.

Steinman MA, Perry L, Perissinotto CM. Meeting the Care Needs ofOlder Adults Isolated at Home During the COVID-19 Pandemic. JAMA Intern Med. 2020;180(6):819–20.

Omobowale AO, Oyelade OK, Omobowale MO, Falase OS. Contextual reflections on COVID-19 and informal workers in Nigeria. Int J Sociol Soc Policy. 2020;40(9–10):1041–57.

Doremalen N van, Morris DH, Holbrook MG, Gamble A, Williamson BN, Tamin A, et al. Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1. New New Engl J Med. 2020;382(16):1564–7.

1. Lewis D. COVID-19 rarely spreads through surfaces. So why are we still deep cleaning? Nature. 2021;590(7844):26-8. doi: 10.1038/d41586-021-00251-4

Finch WH, Hernández Finch ME. Poverty and Covid-19: Rates of Incidence and Deaths in the United States During the First 10 Weeks of the Pandemic. Front Sociol. 2020;5:47.

Alves MR, de Souza RAG, Caló RDS. Poor sanitation and transmission of covid-19 in Brazil. Sao Paulo Med J. 2021;139(1):72–6. doi: 10.3389/fsoc.2020.00047

Xiong Y, Song S, Ye G, Wang X. Family cluster of three recovered cases of pneumonia due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection. BMJ Case Rep. 2020;13(5):11–4.

1. Lan L, Xu D, Ye G, Xia C, Wang S, Li Y, et al. Positive RT-PCR Test Results in Patients Recovered From COVID-19. JAMA. 2020;323(15):1502-3. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.2783

Askar MW, Larasakti CW, Ardinanta R, Sabilah IV, Valeska DS, Kasmaran F, et al. Policy Notes Series 1: Catatan Setengah Jalan PKKM Darurat. Yogyakarta; 2021.

Aldila D, Khoshnaw SHA, Safitri E, Anwar YR, Bakry ARQ, Samiadji BM, et al. A mathematical study on the spread of COVID-19 considering social distancing and rapid assessment: The case of Jakarta, Indonesia. Chaos, Solitons and Fractals. 2020;139:110042. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chaos.2020.110042

Wirawan IMA, Januraga PP. Forecasting COVID-19 Transmission and Healthcare Capacity in Bali, Indonesia. J Prev Med Public Heal. 2020;53(3):158–63.

Anderson RM, Heesterbeek H, Klinkenberg D, Hollingsworth TD. How will country-based mitigation measures influence the course of the COVID-19 epidemic? Lancet. 2020;395(10228):931–4.

Li X, Zhong X, Wang Y, Zeng X, Luo T, Liu Q. Clinical determinants of the severity of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS ONE. 2021;16(5):e0250602. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0250602

Sanyaolu A, Okorie C, Marinkovic A, Patidar R, Younis K, Desai P, et al. Comorbidity and its Impact on Patients with COVID-19. SN Compr Clin Med. 2020;2(8):1069-76. doi: 10.1007/s42399-020-00363-4

Shibata S, Arima H, Asayama K, Hoshide S, Ichihara A, Ishimitsu T, et al. Hypertension and related diseases in the era of COVID-19: a report from the Japanese Society of Hypertension Task Force on COVID-19. Hypertens Res. 2020;43(10):1028–46.

Qureshi AI, Baskett WI, Huang W, Shyu D, Myers D, Raju M, et al. Acute Ischemic Stroke and COVID-19: An Analysis of 27 676 Patients. Stroke. 2021;52(3):905-12. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.120.031786

Lim S, Bae JH, Kwon HS, Nauck MA. COVID-19 and diabetes mellitus: from pathophysiology to clinical management. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2021;17(1):11–30.

Kumar A, Arora A, Sharma P, Anikhindi SA, Bansal N, Singla V, et al. Is diabetes mellitus associated with mortality and severity of COVID-19? A meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab Syndr Clin Res Rev. 2020;14(4):535–45.

Katriana. Satgas: Pasien rumah sakit jadi kluster COVID-19 paling tinggi di DKI [Internet]. ANTARA NEWS. 2020 [cited 2021 Sep 24]. Available from: https://www.antaranews.com/berita/1742701/satgas-pasien-rumah-sakit-jadi-kluster-covid-19-paling-tinggi-di-dki

Wei XS, Wang XR, Zhang JC, Yang WB, Ma WL, Yang BH, et al. A cluster of health care workers with COVID-19 pneumonia caused by SARS-CoV-2. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2021;54(1):54–60.

Ho FK, Petermann-Rocha F, Gray SR, Jani BD, Katikireddi SV, Niedzwiedz CL, et al. Is older age associated with COVID-19 mortality in the absence of other risk factors? General population cohort study of 470,034 participants. PLOS ONE. 2020;15(11):e0241824. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0241824

Kang SJ, Jung SI. Age-Related Morbidity and Mortality among Patients with COVID-19. Infect Chemother. 2020;52(2):154–64.

Wijaya E. Pandemi Covid-19 menurunkan cakupan imunisasi anak Indonesia, apa bahaya dan solusinya? [Internet]. The Conversation. 2020 [cited 2021 Sep 24]. Available from: https://theconversation.com/pandemi-covid-19-menurunkan-cakupan-imunisasi-anak-indonesia-apa-bahaya-dan-solusinya-140710

Widadio NA. Cakupan imunisasi dasar menurun akibat pandemi Covid-19 [Internet]. Anadolu Agency. 2020 [cited 2021 Sep 24]. Available from: https://www.aa.com.tr/id/nasional/cakupan-imunisasi-dasar-menurun-akibat-pandemi-covid-19/1862944

Ministry of Health. Peta Sebaran [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2021 Sep 24]. Available from: https://covid19.go.id/peta-sebaran

Clark CE, McDonagh STJ, McManus RJ, Martin U. COVID-19 and hypertension: risks and management. A scientific statement on behalf of the British and Irish Hypertension Society. J Hum Hypertens. 2021;35(4):304–7.